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Research Methods in Psychology

INFORMATION

Outcome 2

This outcome is abou= t the different methods of research used by psychologists. The following methods = of research will be covered:

Experiments
Surveys
Interviews
Observational studies
Case studies.=

At the end of this o= utcome you should be able to identify and describe the main research methods used = in psychology. You should also know about examples of research used by psychologists and the methods chosen by them.

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Outcome 2

Describe the main re= search methods used in psychology.

Performance Cr= iteria

a. The main research methods used in psychology are described accurately.

b. Uses of these met= hods are described accurately.

INFORMATION<= /o:p>

The different res= earch methods in psychology

Observation

Observation is a tec= hnique that was first invented by scientists who study animal behaviour out in the wild (ethology). The subjects of this research are observed in their own environment, without the researcher interfering in any way. Observing<= /o:p>

children’s pla= y in school playgrounds is a good example of the sort of thing that psychologists might do if they are using this method of research.

The observer does no= t try to record everything that happens but looks for particular aspects of behav= iour such as a child being helpful, a child being aggressive etc.

Effective observation always involves recording what happens in a highly structured way and developing good observational techniques so that you can record on the spot= in an efficient manner.

Recording can be car= ried out using written descriptions, charts

/ tables or more ela= borate equipment such as video cameras or tape recorders. Very often, more than one observer is involved in any given observational study.

The type of observat= ion where the observer(s) stays away and apart from the group or situation being studied is called non-participant observation. As the name suggests, non-participant observation is observation that is carried out by separate observers.

However, it is possi= ble to carry out an observational study and be active in a group or situation at t= he same time. This however is a much more tricky task. Such an observer has to both organise the observation properly and remember to stay detached from t= he situation he / she is involved with. Observation carried out in this way is called participant observation.

There are a few prob= lems with observation as a method of gathering factual, scientific data, Since i= t is not possible to record everything that one person or group does, important things will be missed out. Also the very presence of someone who is observi= ng you may well alter your behaviour in certain ways – this is of course more of a problem for non-participant observation. Finally, there is always= the possibility of observer bias.

This means that the observer(s) might already have ideas about

why people will beha= ve in certain ways. These ideas may well influence how they see a situation and affect what they put down as happening there.

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Examples of observational studies used in psychology:

1. Non participant observation Betty Mayall and Patricia Petrie studied 39 registered childminders in four inner city areas in London. Mayall and Petrie used the observational method as the main method for collecting information about how childminders and the children in their care interact. Mayall and Petrie observed the interaction between 27 of the children and their minders, and = also between these same children and their mothers. They were<= /p>

interested in findin= g out what kind of activities the children were involved in at the minders, wheth= er their activities encouraged co-operation, and whether the child appeared to= be happy and stimulated.

2. Participant Observation

Hargreaves carried o= ut a study in a secondary school. He wanted to find out about friendships, how t= hey happened, what kept them going, why they ended, etc. Hargreaves became a me= mber of the school staff for one year in order to carry out this study.

During his time at t= he school, Hargreaves made detailed observations about the different attitudes= and behaviours of pupils and staff at this school. He was only able to obtain t= his information by interacting fully with the school population.

Questions=

a. What is meant by = (i) participant (ii) non-participant observation

b. What evidence is = there in example 1 that the researchers carried out their study in a scientific w= ay?

c. Suggest two probl= ems that might arise in example 2 that might make this study less scientific?

d. How do you think = the observation would have been recorded in (i) example 1 and=

(ii) example 2<= /o:p>

The different res= earch methods in psychology

Surveys

Surveys are another = very useful way of collecting information which helps psychologists to find out about people and their behaviour. Surveys can consist of both questionnaires and interviews, since they always involve asking questions and<= /o:p>

recording the answer= s in some way. In both questionnaires and interviews, questions can be arranged = in a strict order or

the order of the que= stions can be varied. Questions can be open-ended, for example "Tell me about your hobbies". Or they can be much more structured, for example, "= ;How many times per week do you exercise – one, two, four ?

Surveys always invol= ve the researcher in analysing the responses given in some way. The results of the survey can then be presented to others in a statistically accurate way.

There are different = ways of carrying out a survey and so different types of survey exist. Perhaps the most common and well-known type of survey is that of the postal survey.<= /b> This invariably involves the use of a questionnaire, which people are asked= to

fill out and return. However, another increasingly popular type of survey is the telephone su= rvey. Here, interviews are conducted over the telephone.

People are asked to = answer a set of questions. These questions are usually designed previously and are always asked in the same order. Answers are usually required to be quite br= ief.

One particular probl= em with surveys is that it matters a great deal just how the subjects are selected. In order for a survey to be properly scientific, it is very impor= tant that we have a representative sample of subjects participating in it= .

In order to obtain a representative sample, we need to try to make sure that everyone has an equ= al chance of being chosen to participate in the survey. Surveys have the disti= nct advantage that we are able to study very large samples of subjects fairly easily. However, one distinct disadvantage is that we cannot really go=

into things in very = much detail. This applies particularly to questionnaire based surveys.

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Examples of a sur= vey used in psychology

Adorno (1950) wanted= to find out if some people are naturally more prejudiced than others. Questionnaires were given to a wide range of people: university and school students, nurses, prison inmates, psychiatric patients, workers and so on. = In all, about

2,000 people answere= d the questionnaire. These were all white, middle class, native born Americans. T= he questionnaire was designed to reveal prejudiced attitudes.

Eighty of these peop= le were then interviewed – these were the ones judged to be the most prejudiced according to the results of their questionnaire. These eighty pe= ople were asked a selection of more detailed, open questions about their backgro= und and

upbringing. Accordin= g to the results of this study, some people are more likely to hold prejudiced attitudes than others. This is thought to be the results of certain persona= lity traits that

they have.

Questions=

a. What is a (i) questionnaire (ii) interview?

b. What type of surv= ey technique was used during the first part of the study?

c. How did the secon= d part of this study differ from the first part?

d. What evidence is = there that this study was carried out in a scientific way?

e. What flaws exist = in this study?

=

The different res= earch methods in psychology

Case studies

Instead of collecting information from a whole mass of people, one research method in particular = concentrates on just one or two individuals, and looks at their experience and behaviour= in much detail. This research method is known as the case study

method. Case studies= of individuals are often used where someone has psychological problems or has = had very unusual experiences. In such an instance, the researcher would gather<= o:p>

information from all relevant sources, i.e. medical records, school reports, etc. In addition, c= ase study research of an individual would include interviewing the individual a= nd also the people with which the individual is or has been closely involved. =

The purpose of such interviews is to enable the researcher to obtain information with which to build up an accurate picture of the person involved and their whole situati= on.

However a case study= can also involve gathering information about a small group of people, rather th= an just one individual. The process of obtaining the information is just the s= ame however i.e. past records and interviews.

Both individual and = group case studies generally take quite a long time to complete. This is because = they require to be carried out in such a highly detailed way, and they require t= he researcher to become involved with the case for a significant period of

time. This however c= an be very valuable in that it provides a rich and usually reliable source of information.

The unfortunate thing about case studies is that only one or two people are studied at the same t= ime, and it takes such a long time to complete. This means that we have no way of knowing how typical these people are i.e. similar to others.

It really is impossi= ble to say that the results of a case study can be said to apply to another person= , no matter how similar.

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Example of a case= study used in psychology

Freud’s = study of ‘Little Hans’

Hans was the son of = one of Freud’s friends, a doctor interested in Freud’s work. He develo= ped a phobia of horses and was especially terrified of being bitten by one of t= hem. Freud thought that in Hans’ unconscious mind he was afraid of his fat= her. Hans showed his anxiety about horses at a conscious level but this really w= as a fear of his father. The biting symbolized punishment, which Hans believed w= ould be imposed on him by his father.

This explanation was backed up by detailed evidence gathered by Freud during the course of the c= ase study of ‘Little Hans’. For example, Hans particularly feared w= hite horses with blinkers and black around the mouth. His father had a black moustache

and wore glasses. Su= ch data was carefully collected in order to support Freud’s explanation = of the phobia.

Questions=

a. What is meant by = the case study method?

b. What sources of information do you think Freud would have used during his case

study of ‘Litt= le Hans’

c. What evidence is = there in the example to support Freud’s conclusion?

d. What are the limitations of this method for psychology?

The different res= earch methods in psychology

Experiments

The experimental met= hod in psychology involves changing things to see what happens. You start off with= an idea about what might happen if the subjects did one thing rather than anot= her. This is known as a hypothesis. Experiments are the most controlled f= orm of psychological study and are the only form where you can prove that one t= hing causes another. In an experiment you test out a very specific hypothesis in controlled conditions. This enables you to concentrate on exactly those thi= ngs you want to investigate.

For example, you mig= ht wish to test the hypothesis that subjects will drink more juice if they wer= e in a hot room than if they

were in a cold room.= In order to do this you would simply put some subjects into a hot room and oth= er (similar) subjects into the same room when it was cold.
An experiment is the= refore a study of cause and effect. In an experiment, you are investigating the relationship between two things by deliberately producing= a change in one of them and looking at, observing, the change in the other. T= hese ‘things’ in

which change takes p= lace are called variables.

Anything that can ch= ange is called a variable. Any variable that you (the researcher) changes is cal= led an independent

variable. = In the example given above the independent variable is the temperature of the room. We then note the effec= t of this change by measuring the dependent variable. The dependent varia= ble in the example above is the amount of juice drunk.

Doing experiments, t= hen, is a special form of observation - of controlled observation. However, observation merely involves observing what is going on without attempting to produce change. The experiment, on the other hand, deliberately manipulates= one

variable and aims at controlling all other variables so that they do not affect the outcome. Experimenters, therefore, do interfere quite deliberately when they are carrying out experiments.

To recap, in any experiment, there are at least two variables - the independent variable and= the dependent variable The independent variable is always the variable (factor)= we suspect will affect the behaviour / performance of the subject(s). The dependent

variable is always t= he behaviour in question (or some measure of it).

The importance of al= l this is that if the experiment is successful, we really can conclude that the difference in subjects’ performance was caused only by the factor - t= he independent variable - we were investigating.

Types of exper= iment

There are several ty= pes of experiment but only laboratory and field experiments are considered to be <= i>true experiments in the sense that the experimenter has direct control over = the independent variable.

In a laboratory experiment, the investigation takes place entirely in a laboratory environm= ent i.e. not in the real world, but in a carefully controlled, artificial setti= ng. In a laboratory experiment, the environment is completely controlled by the experimenter. The relationship between two things is investigated by delibe= rately

producing a change i= n one variable (the independent variable or IV) and carefully recording what effe= ct this has on the other variable (the dependent variable or DV).

Control and replication are key concepts in laboratory experiments in particular. If an experimental result= is true it should always be possible to reproduce it. Therefore an experimenter should always provide sufficient detail for anyone else to attempt to<= /o:p>

replicate it. Labora= tory experiments are particularly popular in cognitive and biological psychology= .

In a field experimen= t, the investigation takes place in more everyday surroundings. The participants a= re usually unaware that they are participating in a psychology experiment at a= ll. However, the independent variable is still being manipulated by the

experimenter, who is interested in finding out what the effect of this is on the dependent varia= ble. The environment, on the other hand, cannot be controlled by the experimente= r in a field experiment.

This is because field experiments take place in real life settings e.g. shopping centres, workpla= ce, schools etc. In real life settings

variables which may = effect the result of your experiment are always present to some extent. They can n= ever be eliminated. The degree of control which the experimenter has in a field experiment is therefore much less than in that of a laboratory experiment.<= o:p>

Another type of expe= riment which exists is called a natural experiment. Strictly speaking these are not true experiments since the independent variable is not actually manipulated= by the experimenter. Natural experiments occur when a researcher is able to exploit, for research purposes, a ‘natural’ event that is about= to occur anyway and takes the form of an experimental

situation.

For instance, a hosp= ital may decide to relax visiting regulations to allow parents to see their sick child at anytime during the hospital stay. In this situation there is a naturally occurring group which is not experiencing the change (a control g= roup in the experimental situation) who can be used for comparison purposes with= the group of children who are experiencing the change(independent variable)

Recovery rates, mora= le, and anxiety levels (the dependent variables) can be compared for the two gr= oups with the aim of ascertaining whether or not the more relaxed

visiting regulations produce faster recovery rates and lower anxiety levels in the group of pati= ents who were given more access to their relatives.

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Examples of exper= iments used in psychology

1. Laboratory experi= ment Asch (1951) showed subjects a single straight line. He then showed them thr= ee other lines and asked them to tell him which one of these three was the same length as the original line. Each subject was tested separately in a laboratory, and 36 subjects were tested in all. Nearly everyone got the ans= wer correct. These same subjects were then each put into a room with a number of other people. Each subject was again shown the original line and then asked= to say which line was

the same length as t= he original line. However, this time, subjects were tested in the presence of these other people. Unknown to them, these other people were part of the experiment.

They had been instru= cted to deliberately give a wrong answer to the test when asked which line was t= he same length as the original. The result was that 74% of the subjects changed their answers to agree with the one given by the other people in the room! = They did this despite the fact that they thought that the answer they were giving was not correct.

Questions=

a. What are the (i)dependent (ii) independent variables in this experiment?

b. Why do you think = this experiment took place in a laboratory?

c. Why were the subj= ects first tested individually?

d. Do you consider t= his to be a successful experiment?

e. What do you think= the hypothesis for this experiment might be?

2. Field Experiment<= o:p>

Piliavin (1969) first detailed an experiment where a male ‘victim’ entered a train. On one occasion he was seen to be drunk, but on another, completely different occasion he was carrying a white cane and wearing dark glasses. As the train pulled out the

station, the male ‘victim’ was seen to stagger and then collapse.

A separate group of = people –trained observers-were also on the train at the same time. They were watching and recording how the passengers reacted to the male ‘victim’ on these different occasions.

The results were tha= t if the ‘victim’ was drunk, help was given by passengers 50% of the time whenever he collapsed. If the victim was seen to be blind, help was offered 95% of the time whenever he collapsed.

Questions=

a. Why is this a fie= ld experiment?

b. Identify the (i)dependent and (ii) independent variables in this experiment

c. Suggest a hypothe= sis for this experiment.

d. What is the main difference between this experiment and the one described above?<= /span>

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Examples of exper= iments used in psychology (continued)

3. Natural experimen= t In the 1960’s many American children were leaving school having achieved very little indeed in terms of basic education. An anthropologist called Os= car Lewis suggested

that their lack of s= uccess in education was due to the fact that many lived in deprived areas with no libraries, parks, theatres etc.

In response to this,= the government made a massive attempt at improving the life chances of such children by introducing special education programmes.

Seventeen billion do= llars was spent on introducing ‘social development’ and ‘cognit= ive development’ projects in the U.S.A. at that time. The main aim was th= at 100.00 ‘deprived’ children would receive some preschool remedial education. One of the

best known programme= s of compensatory education was ‘Operation Headstart’ A detailed stu= dy of the effects of Operation Headstart involved children in over 47,000 education centres. These children were given help with pre-school skills an= d

given regular check = ups. They were taught games and given much needed extra educational support. Assessments of their performance in education were then made throughout the= ir school years.

Results indicate that while most of the children benefited enormously from their early enrichment, once they were actually in school many of them started to fall behind. In f= act, by the age of nine or ten, most of these children had still slipped behind their

better off classmate= s.

Questions=

a. What is meant by a natural experiment?

b. In what way(s) is= the above an example of a natural experiment?

c. Identify the (i) independent (ii) dependent variables in the above example=

d. Why is this examp= le less like an experiment than the previous two examples?

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Revision question= s

1. Why do psychologi= sts carry out research?

2. What is meant by = the case study method of research?

3. What is the diffe= rence between participant and non-participant observation?

4. Which research me= thods involve asking questions directly?

5. Name two types of survey?

6. Why do case studi= es take a long time to complete?

7. What is an indepe= ndent variable?

8. Name two types of experiment

9. What is the purpo= se of an experiment in psychology?

10. What is the diff= erence between a field experiment and a natural experiment?