OBSERVATIONAL METHOD: The observational method is a non-experimental design. The absence of an independent variable does not allow any cause-effect conclusions to be drawn from observational research. Sound evidence is however important to the observational method. Indeed, the observational method's key feature is a standardised, planned, and systematic approach to objectively observe and record behaviour. This is of course to generate all-important data upon which to base any conclusions. Observations, which can be overt or covert, are of five main types. We have participant observation, non-participant observation, structured observation, unstructured observation and naturalistic observation. Each involves the planned gathering, analysis, and interpretation of mostly empirical data on observed behaviour. Each observation has its own features, advantages and disadvantages. Participant observation, for example, sees the researcher set up, and take part in the observation of behaviour under investigation. Non-participant observation sees no involvement on the part of the researcher, with recordings of observed behaviours being taken from afar. The observational method has both advantages and disadvantages as a research design in psychology. Covert observations can be problematic regards ethics and disclosure. Confounding variables also plague observations. These are infinite, and include observer bias and the observer effect. If the researcher plans, structures, and conducts their observation appropriately, the observational method can be seen as a most valid and reliable form of non-experimental research in psychology mainly due to the observational method's high ecological validity.

Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation is the planned watching and recording of behaviours as they occur within a natural environment. An example would be naturalistic observation of animals in their natural habitat.

Structured observation
Structured observation is the planned watching and recording of behaviours as they occur within a controlled environment. Used particularly with infants and young children.

See Ainsworth, MDS., Blehar, MC., Waters, E., Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation'. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Inc.

Go to http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Ainsworth.htm for more information on Mary Ainsworth and attachment theory.

Unstructured observation
Unstructured observation is the unplanned, informal, watching and recording of behaviours as they occur in a natural environment.

A reasonable example would be Whyte (1943) when he joined an Italian street gang in Chicago. He used a cover story that he was writing a book about the area, when in fact he was observing gang members from a psychological point of view. On his experiences he wrote, 'I began as a non-participating observer. As I became accepted into the community I found myself becoming a non-observing participant.'

Participant observation
Participant observation is where a researcher sets up and takes part in the observational study.

Non-participant observation
Non-participant observation is where the researcher sets up but does not take part in the observational study. They observe participants at a distance.

Type of Observational Method	Advantages	Disadvantages
Naturalistic Observation	Particularly good for observing specific subjects. Provides ecologically valid recordings of natural behaviour. Spontaneous behaviours are more likely to happen.	Ethics: Where research is undisclosed consent will not be obtained, where consent is not obtained - details may be used which infringe confidentiality.
Structured Observation	Allows control of extraneous variables. Reliability of results can be tested by repeating the study. Provides a safe environment to study contentious concepts such as infant attachment.	The implementation of controls may have an effect on behaviour. Lack of ecological validity. Observer effect. Observer bias.
Unstructured Observation	Gives a broad overview of a situation. Useful where situation/subject matter to be studied is unclear.	Only really appropriate as a "first step" to give an overview of a situation / concept / idea.
Participant Observation	Gives an "insiders" view. Behaviours are less prone to misinterpretation because researcher was a participant. Opportunity for researcher to become an "accepted" part of the environment.	Observer effect. Possible lack of objectivity on the part of the observer.
Non-Participant Observation	Avoidance of observer effect	Observer is detached from situation so relies on their perception which may be inaccurate

Extraneous variables
An extraneous variable is something from the outside that creeps into an experiment and gives rise to an alternative explanation for your results. Experiments are all about establishing 'cause and effect' between an independent variable and a dependent variable. Extraneous variables that pollute cause and effect conclusions in psychology are to be avoided. Extraneous variables are of two kinds, random variables, and confounding variables. Random extraneous variables just happen. You the experimenter have no control over them. They cannot be anticipated or controlled. Examples of random variables that could give rise to another explanation for your results would be in a laboratory experiment when a radiator starts making a funny noise, and distracts participants who are in the middle of doing something. Another would be in a field experiment when it starts chucking it down with rain! Confounding variables are of three kinds. Those attributed to the experimenter; those attributed to the situation; and those attributed to the participant.

Ecological validity
Criticism often levied at the behaviourist, cognitive, and biological approaches due to their use of the laboratory experiment in their research. Laboratory experiments can often be accused of lacking in ecological validity. They do not reflect a real life situation. This is a problem for psychology in that it is a subject interested in our real-life everyday behaviours. Lab experiments by their very nature often get human participants behaving in an abnormal manner. This leads to distorted data, and thus weak psychological conclusions.

Observer bias
Observer bias is an example of a confounding variable in observational research. Observer bias can occur in that the observer, and thus their results, may be influenced by prior knowledge, or experience of the situation / subject(s) / participant(s) under investigation.

Observer effect
Observer effect is a confounding variable in observational research. An observer effect occurs where any change in the participant's behaviour is a result of the observer's presence.